The Ancient Land of Kush

Chapter 1: Pre-Kerma Before 3500 B.C.

Five thousand years before Christ (5000 B.C.) the river Nile flowed on a slightly different course than it does in what is today northern Sudan.  

The area we are going to focus on is around the Third Cataract of the Nile (near the modern-day area of Kerma in the Sudan). (Note: A cataract is a major rocky area in the Nile; there are six of them, with the 1st starting in the area we call Lower Nubia—mostly in modern day Egypt—and the 2nd through 6th cataracts forming the area we call Upper Nubia—in modern Sudan).

The area around the Third Cataract (in today’s Sudan) experienced a more eastwardly flow of the Nile; naturally, people followed the flow of the river as the desert continued to dry out.  You can find human establishments as early as 5000 B.C. along this eastwardly flow of the Nile.  Keep in mind that there were other people in other societies throughout Africa, including those who formed ceremonial structures, settlements, and the world’s first astronomical observatory, in Nabta Playa, in what we call Lower Nubia.

As the river began to move toward a more westwardly path, people obviously moved with it.  Many of the archaeological finds you will see, around the world, can be traced to human beings’ natural desire for stability, food, water, trade, and the ability to raise their families in peace—this area of the world is no different.

The soil surrounding the Nile was fertile as it contained rich deposits that were left after the annual flooding season.

By the time 3500 B.C. came around, you find more permanent settlements in this specific area around the Third Cataract of the Nile. (Note: Human activity has been present in this area of the world for over 140,000 years and ancestral activity for millions of years).

Nubian Societies

It is important to note that Nubian societies, identified as A-Group Nubians by archaeologists, were active up and down the Nile Valley at this time—including in areas that would become Kemet.

It is quite possible that the people who established the areas around the Third Cataract of the Nile, in approximately 3500 B.C., were related to the larger group of A-Group Nubians active in this area.

The area, near the Third Cataract of the Nile, would become the center of the society, called Yam, at first, by the Kemetic people, and eventually called, Kush.

In fact, this early culture was found to have its cemetery "dug into the remains" of another settlement that was at least one thousand years older than the cemetery. (Kendall, p. 38, 1997). They lived in circular homes and had hearths (fire pits) for household use.

[Kendall, Timothy.  Kerma and the Kingdom of Kush 2500 -1500 B.C.: The Archaeological Discovery of an Ancient Nubian Empire.  (Washington, D.C.: National Museum of African Art, 1997).]

NOTE: As we look at the past 300,000 years of homo sapien activity, you find that human beings (you and I) begin on the continent of Africa. Archeological remains in places like Ethiopia, South Africa, Chad, Morocco, etc…all show evidence of early human activity (and ancestral activity dating back to millions of years ago). It doesn’t matter whether you are talking about the ancestors of modern humans, or modern humans themselves, the development of human activity began in Africa. So, it should not be surprising to anyone that there were societies in ancient Africa thousands of years ago.

3,500 BC - The Ancient City of Kerma

Archeological excavations by people like George Reisner (in the early 1900s), from Harvard University, came to erroneous conclusions about this area and about Kemet’s culture. It was assumed that areas they excavated in the Sudan were only offshoots of Egypt—they were wrong.

The Third Cataract of the Nile proved to be the center of a society that thrived in ancient times as a trading partner to societies to its north, south and east.

We are not sure exactly what the ancient name for this area (around the Third Cataract) was in the distant past, but it now gets its name from the modern area of Kerma, which is near its archeological site.

Its location, along this part of the Nile, gave it an advantage in trade when the demand for gold, ivory, animals, ebony and incense was high in various places throughout the world.

When you think of ancient Kerma, think of spirituality, ancestors and trade.

Chapter 2: 2500 B.C.

The archaeological evidence blossoms in this area, for a one thousand-year period, from 2500 B.C. to 1500 B.C., and again from 1500 to 1070 B.C. (during Kemetic domination) and finally from 900 B.C. to 300 A.D. (with the rise of new Kush and the advancement of other capitals, in Napata, around the 4th cataract of the Nile, and in Meroè, between the 5th and 6th cataracts). 

As we deal with the period between 2500 B.C. and 1500 B.C. the site at Kerma is the capital of this society. 

Archaeologists acknowledge four periods in this stage of Kerman civilization: 

• The Early Kerma Period - 2500 - 2050 B.C. (which corresponds to Old Kingdom, Dynasties 5 - 10, and early Middle Kingdom activity, in Kemet); 

• The Middle Kerma Period - 2050 - 1750 B.C. (which corresponds to the Middle Kingdom of Kemet, Dynasties 11-13);

• The Classic Kerma Period - 1750 - 1450 B.C. (which corresponds to the Second Intermediate Period in Kemet and the rise of foreign rulers in the north, the Hikau-khoswet—or Hyksos—as well as the start of the New Kingdom in Kemet and the establishment of the 18th Dynasty, from the south, in Upper Kemet).

[Bonnet, Charles. The Black Kingdom of the Nile. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2019).]

At this time, in the Early Kerma period, Kerma was a fortified city—with lookout stations built up against the walls in the shape of semi-ovals; cemeteries with graves in the shape of circles with large mounds of dirt on top them and articles of jewelry and other items with the deceased; religious buildings for worship; palaces for its rulers and homes for the other members of its society.

In addition to the main fortified area, there was a another ceremonial city about 4/10 of a mile away, to the northeast, that we now call Dukki Gel.  There was also a port for receiving river traffic and extended areas.

So, there was:

• A capital and fortified city at Kerma

• Another city at Dukki Gel

• A port for river traffic and

• A number of surrounding neighborhoods and areas

As noted, there were neighborhoods and other areas surrounding near (or in) these complexes. "The houses consisted of a single room, sometimes with a gated courtyard containing aboveground circular silos with thin walls.  In (Kemet), contemporary houses of this type have been found at both Aswan (in the south) and Giza (more north)." (Bonnet, "The Early Kerma City," 2019)

Workshops were found throughout the Kerma area, with earthen pits serving as furnaces to produce pottery.

"Urbanization extended to the outskirts of the quadrangular city, where several mudbrick dwellings were discovered.  Their plans, irregular in nature, probably indicate social differences.  They range from small single-roomed dwellings to residences of two or three separate buildings with internal courtyards and spacious exteriors that included circular silos for food storage and enclosures for small livestock." (Bonnet, "The Early Kerma City," 2019)

Thus, this area was dispersed and urbanized, with not just a few structures and one, single, group of people.

In the Kerma area, people were often buried in a position with their knees raised and bent, on their right side, with their heads to the east.

Chapter 3: Middle Kerma - 2050 - 1750 B.C.

The houses and the structures of this period are more numerous and bigger.

They extensively used the materials available to them in their architecture and everyday lives. Marble made of dolomite (white), red and yellow ochre (clay pigment or coloring), and bronze were all in use in techniques for utensils and buildings.  In one example, a large furnace was used to melt down metal.  It had a vaulted chamber situated over eight, separate fireplaces (if you will). The furnace complex was likely used to meltdown metals and then to transfer them to a mold for shaping.

Grain was grown throughout Kerma’s history and storage areas can be seen throughout its remains. Bakeries were also found in large quantities, in Kerma, for religious and everyday purposes.

Thus:

• Goldsmithing

• Bronze-working

• Production of ceramics 

• Bakeries, etc.

….were all a part of everyday life in ancient Kerma.

The military made use of skilled archers…handheld weapons and lookout structures along its fortified city to help defend this area.

One of the characteristics that made this area desirable was its location between societies to the south, east and north of it—along the transportation highway that is the Nile.  A great amount of seal impressions were found, indicating that goods that came in and out of this area were stamped as a part of an extensive trade network.  Ebony, gold, ivory, precious stones, diorite, ostrich feathers, resins (organic substances that come from trees), incense, monkeys, giraffes, panther skins, etc. could all be found south of Kerma.  Kemetic items such as weapons, mirrors, other precious stones, crops, papyrus, gold, etc. could also be found north of Kerma.  To the east, resins, myrrh and other coveted items could be found in places like Punt Ta-neter, God’s Land.  Think of a great trading and cultural triangle, with the Nile serving as its base and the east at the top of the pyramid.

The Third Cataract of the Nile could, thus, serve as a central point for these items to be easily transported up and down the Nile and the people who controlled this area found themselves in a position to develop a great deal of influence and wealth.   There were other trade routes, for sure…overland for instance, but river traffic along the Nile was much preferred, obviously.

Graves were larger and more vigorously adorned during this time. Cattle heads in skeleton form were used to decorate tumuli, usually on the south side of the grave.  In one later instance, a grave site was 131 feet in diameter and contained 5,000 bucrania (cattle skulls) along its southern edge.  People may have been buried with the rulers and chapels were nearby within which offerings could be left for the deceased by loved ones or attendants.  The deceased person was still placed on their side, with their knees raised and bent and, this time, with their heads toward the north.  Grave beds were often used, made out of leather and wood….a custom that doesn’t seem to be employed in any other society in the world, at this time.

The territory under the control of the rulers of Kerma also expanded to the areas around the Fifth Cataract of the Nile.

Chapter 4: The Classic Kerma Period - 1750 - 1450 B.C.

It was during the time, a few hundred years before this period, that the name, Kush, began to show up in Kemetic documents in the forts set up along the Second Cataract of the Nile and thereabouts, during the (Middle Kingdom) 12th Dynasty of Kemet. 

This would seem to indicate that Kush was a threat and a power that ancient Kemet had to deal with as several rulers of the 12th Dynasty set up a series of forts at:

• Buhen

• Kumma

• Semna (Heh)

• Uronarti

• Mirgrissa, etc. 

Their forts were scattered throughout Lower Nubia (south of Kemet’s traditional border) and areas around and south of the Second Cataract, as mentioned. 

When the Middle Kingdom fell, in Kemet, Kush filled the vacuum and took control of the areas north of the Second Cataract, up to the very borders of Kemet (in Yebu) along the 1st cataract. The power of Kush, and its coalition of rulers from the surrounding areas, was paramount.

This period of time demonstrates the power of the Kushite area at its height.  The area around Kerma was dominated by a temple, that served as the focal point of the city. 

It was a structure that had been in use since Early Kerma times (or even earlier), but it was expanded and reinforced during late Middle and Classic Kerma time periods. The religious significance of this structure shows the extent to which religion, and spirituality, dominated the culture of Kush.  The Lower (or Western) Deffufa, as it is called was a striking structure that dominated the skyline in Kerma, during this period. (Deffufa is a local word for a manmade, mud brick building). See a video of the view from this structure, below.

The rulers of this time period made their graves sites more elaborate and extensive.  Following the traditional ways, their resting places were large circular graves, with many people  buried next to them (possibly willing or unwilling sacrifices) and large amounts of artifacts such as jewelry, weapons, pottery and more.

The graves were covered in mounds, with white stones on top, a circular boundary of black stones on their outer rim, cattle skulls laying around their southern circular side and a white quartzite cone atop the grave.  The deceased was still buried—laying on their right side—in a bent position, with a bed in the chamber that was inlaid with ivory figures.

These customs date back to well before this Classic Kerma period, but became more elaborate and were implemented on a grand scale during this time.

The workmanship in pottery, faience, wood, ivory and metal was superb and was at the center of an economic highway that brought it into important relationships with rulers beyond Kemet.

As the Second Intermediate Period in Kemet came to a close, the leaders of the 17th Dynasty began to rise in southern, Upper, Kemet to take on the foreign Hyksos who were ruling Kemet at that time.  The ruler Kamose, famously argued that he had foreign rulers to his north and Kushite rulers to the south (right on their southern boarder near the 1st Cataract of the Nile).  Kamose took the fight to the north and significantly pushed back the Hyksos from large parts of Kemet.  His brother, Ahmose I (founder of the New Kingdom in Kemet) finished the job and completely expelled the Hyksos from Kemet.

He then turned his attention to the south. He came into Kush’s territory and defeated them in a decisive battle, but the people of Kush, and the surrounding areas, would not be easily defeated. Kemetic rulers Amenhotep I (1525 - 1504 B.C.) and Thutmose I (1504 - 1492 B.C.) would have to fight wars in Kush as well before any permanent settlement was established by the New Kingdom rulers of Kemet Kush.

• Ahmose I (ca. 1550 - 1525 BC)

• Amenhotep I (ca. 1525 - 1504 BC)

• Thutmose I (ca. 1504 -1492 BC)

At least 50 years of fighting had to take place before Kemet could establish control of Kush, in the area around the 3rd cataract of the Nile. Thutmose I established a Kemetic town in the area of what was Dukki Gel, while leaving Kushite religious symbols and some structures in place.

The Kemetic armies sacked Kerma, tore down some places in Dukki Gel and established their rule for about 430 years.  That period of time seems brief in the more than 3,000-year history of Kush/Yam, as Kush would rise again.

The people of ancient Kush would, again, form a familial dynasty that would last from about 900 B.C. to 300 A.D. (1,200 years). The leaders of this resurgence would carry the names of:

• Kashta

• Piankhy (or Piye)

• Shabaka

• Shebitku

• Shepenwepet II

• Taharqa

• Tanwetamani and others.

Referred to as the Napatan Dynasty, as their capital was near Napata.

Later famous queens such as Amanirenas and Amanitore would lead the country as their capital shifted south to Meroè, between the 5th and 6th cataracts of the Nile.

By, Danita Smith, Author

References:

Bonnet, Charles and Honegger, Matthieu. “The Eastern Cemetery of Kerma,” Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia, January 13, 2021, accessed online November 25, 2023.

Bonnet, Charles, The Black Kingdom of the Nile, (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2019).

Classic Kerma Beaker, Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed online November 25, 2023, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/545772

Kendall, Timothy.  Kerma and the Kingdom of Kush 2500 -1500 B.C.: The Archaeological Discovery of an Ancient Nubian Empire.  (Washington, D.C.: National Museum of African Art, 1997).

UNESCO, The Monuments of the Kingdom of Kerma and DokkiGel. accessed online, November 25, 2023

Images:

Egyptian. Relief Fragment of Shepenwepet II, ca. 700 B.C.E. Sandstone, Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 74.99.2. Creative Commons-BY creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Temple Relief of a King as a Child Protected by a Goddess, ca. 700-670 B.C.E. Sandstone, pigment, 97/16 x 7 1/2 x 1 7/16 in. (24 x 19 x 3.7 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 70.1. Creative Commons-BY creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Western Deffufa of Ancient Kerma and City of Dukki Gel, Adobe images.

Maps of Ancient Nubia, Red and Black Ink, LLC and Danita Smith, 2023 - 2025.

Timeline of Ancient Yam-Kush , Red and Black Ink, LLC and Danita Smith, 2024 - 2025.

Bowl with Alternate Impressed and Red-polished Panels, ca. 3500-3300 B.C.E. Clay, 3 1/2 x 7 9/16 in., Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 07.447.404., Creative Commons-BY

Classic Kerma Beaker, ca. 1802–1640 B.C., Middle Kingdom, From Egypt, Northern Upper Egypt, Abydos, Tomb 525, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1920 Open Access-Public Domain, Possibly from the tomb of a Kermitic person who took up residence in Egypt?